Athletes Zone


Roll Your Way to Improved Performanace
A lot of you are probably wondering why we instruct you to roll around on those blue foam rollers before or during sessions in the PowerRoom. Well, this blog post aims to educate you as to the rationale, benefits, general guidelines, and specific techniques of foam rolling. Think of it as a self-massage. The benefits of which are to improve the quality of the muscle before it is exercised, so that the muscle can perform optimally and thus improve performance when training/competing.

Foam rolling and self-myofascial release (SMR) are important methods that can be used in order to improve your athletic performance. Essentially, you get many of the benefits of stretching, whilst improving the quality of the muscle and thus aiding performance. Muscles need to not only be strong, but pliable as well. Regardless of your sport, it's important to have strength and optimal function through a full range of motion. While stretching will improve the length of the muscle, SMR and massage work to adjust the tone of the muscle (Robertson, 2008).

Benefits/Contraindications of SMR
    Robertson (2008) suggests a number of reasons as to why you might want to include SMR and foam rolling techniques in your training:  
  • Improved mobility and range of motion.
  • Reduction of scar tissue and adhesions.
  • Decreased tone of overactive muscles.
  • Improved quality of movement.
  • Fill in the gaps between physical therapy and/or deep tissue massage sessions.

There are also several reasons as to why you may not want to include SMR and foam rolling techniques in your training, or areas to avoid (Robertson, 2008):
  • Recently injured areas.
  • Circulatory problems.
  • Chronic pain problems.
  • Bony prominences/joints.

General Guidelines
Robertson (2008) recommends that like all training principles, rationalised progression must be implemented in order to elicit continued progression. Area and density can be altered by using different sized and dense implements, e.g. foam rollers, medicine balls, tennis balls...and for the brave ones amongst us, hockey balls!!

Force can also be altered in a number of ways:
  • If you have two legs on the foam roller, take one off.
  • If possible, stack one leg on top of the other.
  • If you have a hand/foot on the ground for stability purposes, take it off (resulting in more of the body’s weight being rolled).

Specific SMR Techniques
Robertson (2008) highlights a number of SMR techniques.

Positioning while on the foam roller is critical for several reasons:
  • Improper alignment may stress the supporting muscles and/or joints.
  • Improper placement can lead to excessive fatigue of the supporting musculature.
  • Improper placement can lead to excessive pressure on the trained area, which decreases compliance.

Duration on SMR and foam rolling techniques varies for several reasons
  • The amount of time necessary to get the derived benefits is directly related to your current tissue quality, e.g. poor tissue quality requires more time and attention.
  • In contrast, the more familiar you become with the techniques and the easier it becomes, the less time you should need on the roller/ball.
  • As a general guideline, you should spend one to two minutes on each area when starting out.
  • The key is to spend the most time on the tightest tissues.

Conclusion
SMR on the foam roller offers an effective, inexpensive, and convenient way to both reduce adhesion and scar tissue accumulation, and eliminate what's already present on a daily basis. Just note that like stretching, foam rolling doesn't yield marked improvements overnight; you'll need to be diligent and stick with it – although you'll definitely notice acute benefits (Robertson, 2008). If you’re interested in the science behind SMR and foam rolling techniques, head over to the ‘Theory Zone’, see ‘Self-Myofascial Release’ article.

Or head over to our YouTube channel for our latest video on specific SMR techniques and get rolling your way to improved performance 
You Tube Link

Written By Chris Wainer DNA Sports Performance S&C Intern 2010-11


References and Further Reading
Robertson, MIKE. (2008). Self-Myofascial Release: Purpose, Methods and Techniques. Robertson Training Systems.


The Road To Becoming Mentally Tough
It has become well established that mental toughness can be natural, or developed. Therefore, whilst it has been suggested that mental toughness has a genetic component (Horsburgh, Schermer, Veselka, Vernon, 2009), it is well  accepted that athletes can acquire, and effectively learn to develop, and maintain, this mental resilience so crucial for success (Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brooks, 2005; Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007; Thelwell, Weston, & Greenlees, 2005).  

Subsequently, the process documenting how athletes become mental tough throughout their careers to reach the top level, and stay there, has been a focal point of research in recent years (Connaughton, Hanton & Jones, 2010; Connaughton, Wadley, Hanton, & Jones, 2008). 

After an investigation in 2008 on athletes who reached international status (elite), Connaughton and colleagues (2008) found that the development of mental toughness occurred in three developmental stages (early, middle, late) and a maintenance stage. 

This was supported by a later study which suggested that more experienced athletes were more mentally tough perhaps due to learning experiences throughout their careers (Nichols, Polman, Levy, Blackhouse, 2009). 

After the publication of the mental toughness framework (email Nick to for the mental toughness framework document allowing you to find out how tough you are compared to the world’s best athletes) (Jones et al., 2007), Connaughton and colleagues (2010) readdressed this issue investigating the process of how mental toughness was acquired in the world champion superelite athletes who have reached the top of their sport. 

Findings from this study suggest that:

“The road to mental toughness is a journey during which your destination is shaped by how well you deal with the experiences you encounter”.

It shows that mental toughness in World and Olympic Champions was developed and maintained during the following 4 distinct career phases. 

Phase 1 ~ Initial involvement to Intermediate Level:
  • 6-10 years
  • Subcomponents of the mental toughness framework which were developed:    
o   Focus
o   Belief
o   Using long term goals as source of motivation
o   Pushing yourself to the limit.

  • Individuals are not mentally tough at beginning of careers.
  • Played sport for: Enjoyment, social aspects, skill mastery.
  • Outperforming peers enhanced belief and motivated athletes to enhance more advanced skills.
  • The successes achieved enhanced motivation and work ethic in training, further strengthening belief and focus.
  • Critical incidents important as positive incidents increased belief, whilst negative experiences resulted in enhanced focus.

Phase 2 ~ Intermediate to Elite Level:
  • 3-6 years.
  • Majority of mental toughness subcomponents developed.
  • Early in this phase the athlete developed the ability to:
o   Control the training environment
o   Belief will succeed in competition
o   Staying focused during competition
o   Achieve consistent level of performance
o   Control competition environment

  • Later in this phase the athlete developed the ability to:
o   Handle the pressure of competition
o   Master awareness and control of thoughts
and feelings
o   Handle success
o   Handle failure

  • Achieving all three of the training subcomponents had a positive impact on the athlete’s general mindset (belief and focus).
  • Additionally, success during training gave the athlete the belief that they could replicate this success during competition.
  • The athlete learned to educate themselves by reflecting on competition thus developing strategies which enhanced decision making, coping abilities and control over pre-competition thoughts and feelings.
  • Reflective practice was also used to allow failures to be perceived as learning experiences which enhanced focus, drive and determination to succeed.
  • Success increased belief and motivation to push themselves to the limit.
  • Negative critical incidents (e.g. death of a peer, parental divorce) acted to allow the athlete to develop a better sport and life balance. 
  • Positive critical incidents (e.g. beating valued opponents, selected for international squad) increased the athlete’s belief that they could achieve their goals.
  • By the end of this phase all 13 subcomponents had been developed to some degree.

Phase 3 ~ Elite to Olympic/World Champion Status:
  • 2-4 year period.
  • Enhancement of all 13 subcomponents of mental toughness to their highest levels.
  • Used competitions as stepping stones to increase belief, awareness and control.
  • Used a wide ranging support network to maintain balance in life.
  • Used sports psychologists to develop mental skills allowing the athlete interpret pressure, expectations and anxiety as positive emotions thus enhancing their ability to control thoughts and feelings under pressure.
  • They also helped to deal with successes and failures; putting success down to ability, and failure down to poor preparation.
  • The athlete developed an awareness, balance and control to “love the pressure” (Connaughton et al., 2010, pg.182) associated with performing against the world’s best. 
  • Again, both positive (e.g. winning major competition, academic achievement) and negative (e.g. family illness, injury) perceived critical incidents occurring in the athlete’s life were seen as crucial for their progression to world class status.


Phase 4 ~ Maintenance Years:
  • 2-5 years.
  • None of the subcomponents developed beyond previous levels.
  • However, it was acknowledged that it was necessary for the athlete to continue to work on their mental toughness through the use of mental skills and strategies, or it would diminish along with their world class status.
  • Failure to maintain their mental toughness often resulted in poor performance and in some cases retirement.
  • Other Champion athletes reported a reduced mental toughness in the maintenance years, however they employed strategies to recover from this drop and maintain their number 1 spot.
  • Strategies outlined by World and Olympic Champions to maintain mental toughness included:
o   Setting new more challenging goals
o   Developing routines for training and competition
o   Maintaining sport-life balance
o   Use of positive self talk
o   Controlling negativity and expectations

ARE ON THE ROAD TO WORLD CLASS MENTAL TOUGHNESS?
WHAT CAN YOU DO TO SPEEDEN UP THE JOURNEY?

Summary
It is clear that to behold the mental toughness required to reach the top, you need to travel a long journey dealing with many ups and downs effectively to continue to strive forward maintaining a strong determination and desire.

  • In every phase the world class athlete acknowledged that critical incidents were crucial for the development of mental toughness.  This was an issue emphasised by Dr Tom Fawcett at a recent conference (Fawcett, 2010).  Fawcett spoke about how the exposure of an athlete to certain environments and adverse circumstances (both in and outside their sporting careers) as they grow up is crucial for their development of mental toughness.  He stated that:


Failure should be perceived as a strength in that it defines limitations and identifies criteria for personal improvement.
Therefore in the mentally tough athlete, there is no such thing as failure, only feedback (Fawcett, 2010).

  • Additionally, it has been speculated that young athletes should be exposed to failure to effectively toughen them up.  Nevertheless, continued failure may permanently damage the athlete’s confidence (Fawcett, 2010).

  • Fawcett (2010) also highlighted a barrier to mental toughness which was defined as “perfectionism”.  It is postulated that perfection doesn’t exist and athletes should therefore always “strive for excellence”.  Fawcett (2010) claimed that being a perfectionist will ruin a potential world champion. 

  • Overall, it is clear from the documented research that although some aspects of mental toughness occur naturally (Horsburgh et al., 2009), many of the attributes of this crucial element of a successful athlete are developed through their experiences and exposure to certain environments. 

  • This therefore implicates that “it is not what happens to the athlete, it is how they deal with what happens to them” (Fawcett, 2010).  This implies that the key to mental toughness is to “deal with both success and failure effectively, and to learn and continually strive to move forward to bigger and better things” (Fawcett, 2010). 

  • All athletes experience many setbacks, but it is how they react to that setback which determines their destiny.  A mentally tough athlete has a high sense of self belief and an unshakable faith that they control their own destiny, these individuals remains relatively unaffected by competition and adversity (Connaughton et al., 2010). 

  • It therefore seems fitting to conclude this blog with the following quote from the famous ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius:

“Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but rising every time we fall”.



Written By Conall Murtagh DNA Sports Performance S&C Intern 2010-11

 
REFERENCES:
Bull, S.J., Shambrook, C.J., James, W., & Brooks, J.E. (2005). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in elite English cricketers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 209-227.

Connaughton, D., Hanton, S., Jones, G., & Wadey, R. (2008). Mental toughness research:
Key issues in this area. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 39, 192–204.

Connaughton, D., Hanton, S., & Jones., G. (2010). The Development and Maintenance of Mental Toughness in the World’s Best Performers.  The Sports Psycologist, 24, 168-193.

Fawcett, T. (2010, November).  An Insight into Mental Toughness. Presented at TASS conference, Liverpool, United Kingdom.

Horsburgh, V. A., Schermer, J. A., Veselka, L., & Vernon, P. A. (2009). A behavioural genetic study of mental toughness and personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 100–105.

Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 243–264.

Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called mental toughness? An investigation of elite sport performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205 - 218.

Nicholls, A.R., Polman, R., Levy., A., & Backhouse, S. (2009).  Mental toughness in sport: Achievement level, gender, age, experience, and sport type differences. Personality and individual differences, 47, 73-75

Thelwell, R., Weston, N., & Greenlees, I. (2005). Defining and understanding mental toughness within soccer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 326–332.

Tough at the Top
In recent years it has become apparent that mental toughness is one of the most crucial attributes in achieving performance excellence (Bull, Shamrock, James & Brooks, 2005; Middleton, Marsh, Martin, Richards, & Perry, 2004).  Talent alone cannot guarantee success, and at the elite level it is mental toughness which most often differentiates between the “good” and “great” performers (Gould, Jackson & Finch, 1993; Orlick, & Partington, 1988).  Additionally, an athlete’s mental profile has been shown to distinguish between:
  • Those who “reach the top”, and those who “stay at the top” (Kreiner-Phillips & Orlick, 1993)
  • Those who perform on the world stage, and those who fall short (Gould et al., 1993)
  • Those who win Olympic gold medals, and those who return empty handed (Gould, Dieffenback & Moffett, 2002)
  • Those who progress through periods of “change” successfully, and those who don’t (Sinclair & Orlick, 1993). 


Research Quote ~ A 20 year study performed on Danish adolescent youth soccer players found that over 86 out of every 100 players’ career success, defined as playing in a top league in Europe for over ten years, can be predicted based on aspects of their mental profile (Van Yperen, 2009). 

So what is this thing called Mental Toughness?
The term “mental toughness” is very widely used, but seldom understood.  Many studies have constructed unfounded and inaccurate definitions of mental toughness.  The most suitable, in depth, and all rounded definition to date was devised by: 
  • Athletes who had represented their country at major events (e.g. Olympic or Commonwealth Games), also known as elite athletes (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002)
  • World or Olympic Champions, also known as superelite athletes (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007)
  • Coaches and sports psychologists who have worked at the superelite world class level (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007).
These mentally tough performers, coaches, and sports psychologists were interviewed extensively and agreed that mental toughness should be defined as:


“Having the natural or developed psychological edge.......that enables the athlete to generally cope better than their opponents with the many lifestyle, competition, and training demands that sport places on a performer, and......specifically be more consistent and better than your opponents at remaining determined, focused, confident, and in control under pressure”.

This definition is perceived as all rounded and holistic as the World Champion athletes, coaches and sports psychologists who devised this definition were from a wide variety of sports including boxing, rowing, cricket, pentathlon, squash, rugby union, rowing, judo, athletics, triathlon and swimming (Jones et al., 2007).  Additionally, single sport studies performed on international soccer (Thelwell, Weston, & Greenless, 2005), cricket (Bull, Shambrock, James, & Brooks, 2005), and Australian football (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008) players also devised very similar definitions of mental toughness, albeit acknowledging some sport specific subtle differences.




Research Focus on Belief ~ “Mistakes would get some people down because they start worrying and thinking about failure.  The ideal mentally tough performer can put a mistake to one side and carry on performing regardless.  They have a resilience, a toughness, they are not fazed by mistakes.  They stay mentally strong when things do go wrong, they are able to bounce back from mistakes and errors...and then produce it again” (Jones et al., 2007, pg.256).


What it Takes to be Tough?
Elite athletes from a variety of sports performing at international level earmarked 12 essential characteristics of mentally tough performers which related to self belief, desire and motivation, focusing, coping with anxiety, and also dealing with pain and hardship (Jones et al., 2002). These attributes can be natural or developed, and are presented as follows in rank order of importance:

1. Having an unshakable self belief in one’s ability to achieve goals.
2. Bouncing back from performance setbacks and recovering to strive forward with an increased determination to succeed.
3. Possessing an unshakable self belief that one has the qualities and abilities greater than opponents.
4. Having a burning desire and internal motivation to succeed.
5. Being fully focused on the task in the face of competition specific distractions.
6. Regaining psychological control following unexpected events.
7. Overcoming physical and emotional pain whilst maintaining technique and effort.
8. Accepting and coping with competition anxiety.
9. Thriving on the pressure of competition.
10. Not being adversely affected by others’ good and bad performances.
11. Remaining fully focused in the face of personal life distractions.
12. The ability to switch a sport focus on and off.


Additionally, six international soccer players devised 10 distinctly similar attributes which they believed are crucial for the mentally tough footballer (Thelwell et al., 2005).  They stated that players perceived to be mentally tough possess a high level of self belief and can cope and remain in a positive mindset regardless of the internal and external pressure that elite sport places on the performer. 


Research Focus on Handling Failure: “They are able to analyze their performance and learn to adapt to whatever caused the errors so that they can reach their ultimate goal.  The mentally tough performer is able to move on from that failure and it’s not an issue or mental block for him.  He uses this knowledge to his advantage for future performances” (Jones et al., 2007, pg.259)


But what do the Superelite World Champions think?
Interviewing athletes who had achieved the ultimate goal in their sport by winning World and Olympic Championships provided a greater insight into this concept of mental toughness.  Coaches and sports psychologists working at this level were also interviewed.  The superelite athletes, coaches and sports psychologists identified 30 distinct attributes essential for the mentally tough performer (Jones et al., 2007).  These attributes allowed the construction of a mental toughness framework (figure 1).  The fact that elite athletes only devised 12 attributes, suggests that although they both agreed on what mental toughness is (the definition), the superelite had a deeper understanding of what it takes to be mentally tough (Jones et al., 2007).  This may suggest that the reason these athletes progressed from the international stage, to the pinnacle of the world stage, was their more detailed insight into how to adopt the attitudes needed to be a true mentally tough performer (Gould et al., 1993; Gould, Dieffenback & Moffett, 2002).


The construction of this mental toughness framework allows athletes to gain a valuable insight into how the world’s top performers think in general, during training, during competition, and after competition (Jones et al., 2007).  If you contact Nick at nicholasjones@dna-sports-performance.com, he will send you a questionnaire which has been devised from this mental toughness framework to allow athlete’s aspiring for success to evaluate their mental profile and earmark which areas of their mental toughness need to be improved in order to achieve the necessary attributes to reach the top of their game.


Research Focus on Handling Pressure ~ “The mentally tough performer is eager to be there and enjoys everything about the competition...the build up...the prelims, the waiting, the final, the race...He looks forward to all these, this is the only place he wants to be...this is what separates athletes (Jones et al., 2007, pg.255).


Research involving the best athletes in the world shows that it most definitely is, “Tough at the Top” (Jones et al., 2007).  Acquiring mental toughness can be the difference between achieving your goals, and just falling short.  The fine line between success and failure may lie in the performer’s mental strength (Kreiner-Phillips & Orlick, 1993; Gould, Dieffenback & Moffett, 2002).  Having just entered a new year, there’s never been a better time to toughen up your mental resilience!!  The main take home message from the blog is that athletes should “Think like the top, to perform at the top!!  Good luck for the new year!!

Stayed tuned for the next mental toughness article on the blog called “The Road to Toughness” which will enlighten you aspiring and ambitious athletes as to how mental toughness may be acquired throughout an athlete’s career focusing on the specific stages of mental toughness development.

Written By Conall Murtagh DNA Sports Performance S&C Intern 2010-11

REFERENCES:

Bull, S.J., Shambrook, C.J., James, W., & Brooks, J.E. (2005). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in elite English cricketers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 209-227.

Fawcett, T. (2010, November).  An Insight into Mental Toughness. Presented at TASS conference, Liverpool, United Kingdom.

Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their
development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172-204.

Gucciardi, D.F., Gordon, D.F., & Dimmock, J.A. (2008). Towards an understanding of mental toughness in Australian Football. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20, 261–281.

Kreiner-Phillips, K., & Orlick, T. (1993). Winning after winning: The psychology of
14 ongoing excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 31-48.

Gould, D., Jackson, S., & Finch, L. (1993). Life at the top: The experiences of U.S. national figure skaters. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 354-374.

Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2007). A framework of mental toughness in the
world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 243–264.

Jones, G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called mental toughness? An investigation of elite sport performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205 - 218.

Middleton, S.C., Marsh, H.W., Martin, A.J., Richards, G.E., & Perry, C. (2004, July).  Discovering mental toughness: A qualitative study of mental toughness in elite athletes. Paper presented at the 3rd International Biennial SELF Research Conference, Berlin, Germany.

Orlick, T.D., & Partington, J. (1988). Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 105-130.

Sinclair, D.A., & Orlick, T. (1993). Positive transitions from high performance sport. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 138-150.

Thelwell, R., Weston, N., & Greenlees, I. (2005). Defining and understanding mental toughness within soccer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 326–332.

Van Yperen, N.W. (2009). Why Some Make It and Others Do Not: Identifying Psychological Factors That Predict Career Success in Professional Adult Soccer. The Sports Psychologist, 23, 317-329.




Exercising Your Bones
Whilst you may be aware of the changes to your muscles, tendons and nervous system occurring as a result of strength and conditioning training, a less obvious effect is that of changes to your bones.   High-impact exercise increases bone mineral content as well as the size and shape of bones (Heinonen et al¸1996), which all increase the strength of your bones – it also improves an individual bone’s fatigue resistance (the ability to withstand repeated loading without stress fracture) (Warden, Fuchs & Turner, 2005).   So whilst you’re increasing strength, power, agility or other elements of performance you could be increasing your resistance to both direct impact and stress fractures, as well as reducing your chances of suffering from osteoporosis in middle or old age!  

These effects are also very quickly seen - significant increases in bone content can be seen within six weeks of starting to exercise (Beverly, Rider, Evans & Smith, 1989).  However, the type of exercise is important – athletes in impact sports such as volleyball and gymnastics have greater bone strength at sites regularly loaded in their chosen sports than athletes in non-impact sports such as swimming and cycling (Fehling, Alekel, Clasey, Rector & Stillman, 2003).  In fact, these studies have found no difference in bone strength between swimmers/cyclists and non-exercising people – sometimes the bone strength in the athletes was even lower!  So for athletes in these sports, your strength and conditioning training may be even more important in helping to maintain strong bones.

These changes in bone are very specific to the area stressed by the exercise - exercises stressing the wrist joint increase bone strength at the near end of the radius (lower arm bone), whilst there are no changes in the same bone further along away from the wrist (Adami, et al, 1999).  Further to this, the bone adapts differently according to the type of stress put upon it.  Studies on weightlifters  have found that bone areas under compressive stress increase in density, whereas those under bending stress have an increased area and adjusted shape to resist bending  (Haapasalo et al, 2002), (Heinonen et al, 1996). 

The forces experienced by the bone are a combination of the results of ground reaction forces and the forces exerted on bones by the muscles, but with those muscle forces being 70% greater (Lua, Taylor, O’Connora & Walker, 1997).  Therefore, as you continue with your training and muscle mass and strength increases, the greater force applied to the bone leads to increased bone mass – conversely, as muscle mass decreases the bone’s habitual regular level decreases and bone mass is lost.

So as you notice strength and/or muscle mass gains from your training, just remember that although the changes aren’t as visible your bones are also adapting and improving, and the stronger you get the stronger they become too!

Written By Alex Ireland DNA Sports Performance S&C Intern 2010-11

References:

Adami, S., Gatti, D., Braga, V., Bianchini, D. & Rossini, M. (1999).  Site-Specific Effects of Strength Training on Bone Structure and Geometry of Ultradistal Radius in Postmenopausal Women.  Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 14(1), 120-124.

Beverly, M.C., Rider, T.A., Evans, M.J. & Smith, R. (1989).  Local bone mineral response to brief exercise that stresses the skeleton.  BMJ, 299, 233-235.

Fehling, P.C., Alekel, L., Clasey, J., Rector, A. & Stillman, R.J. (1995).  A comparison of bone mineral densities among female athletes in impact loading and active loading sports. Bone, 17(3),  205-10.

Haapasalo, H., Sievanen, H., Kannus, P., Oja, P. & Vuori, I. (2002). Site-Specific Skeletal Response to Long-Term Weight Training Seems to be Attributable to Principal Loading Modality: A pQCT Study of Female Weightlifters, Calcified Tissue International, 70(6), 469-474.

Heinonen, A., Kannus, P., Sievänen, H., Oja, P., Pasanen, M., Rinne, M., Uusi-Rasi, K. & Vuori, I. (1996).  Randomised controlled trial of effect of high-impact exercise on selected risk factors for osteoporotic fractures. Lancet, 348(9038), 1343-7.

Heinonen A, Sievänen H, Kannus P, Oja P, Vuori I. (1996)  Effects of unilateral strength training and detraining on bone mineral mass and estimated mechanical characteristics of the upper limb bones in young women.  Journal of Bone Mineral Research, 11(4), 490-501.

Lua, T-W, Taylor, S.J.G., O’Connora, J.J. & Walker, P.S. (1997).  Influence of muscle activity on the forces in the femur: An in vivo study.  Journal of Biomechanics, 30(11), 1101-1106.

Warden, S.J., Fuchs, R.K. & Turner, C.H. (2004).  Steps for targeting exercise towards the skeleton to increase bone strength.  Europa Medicophysica, 40(3), 223-32.

Guide to Squatting
One of the most functional exercises for ground based athletes is the squat.  Most if not all of my athletes have this exercise in their program in some form.  The blog will give you an overview of all key points however it should be used to support the practical coaching one of the DNA Sports Performance Team do with you, so here goes ! 

There are three main types of squats: 
Front Squat Video   
Back Squat Video 
Overhead Squat Video  
All of these can be manipulated in various ways to achieve different results, with the main modification being depth i.e. quarter, half and full. 

Everyone will develop their own specific form over time however there are three golden rules which everyone must adhere to: 
  1. Feet flat on floor ~ feel the weight through your heals 
  2. Hips and knees move simultaneously ~ think hips first though
  3. Body upright through movement ~ think chest out
The following areas can also be manipulated based on what your coach is trying to achieve: 
  1. Foot width ~ standard is shoulder width apart 
  2. Foot angle ~ standard is 11 to 1 on clock face 
  3. Bar grip ~ front clean grip, front folded arms, back high or low bar, overhead narrow or wide grip 
So there you have it guys, your 101 on how to squat well.  However listen to what your coach says, ask questions and practice!
  
Written By Nicholas Jones DNA Sports Performance Director

Protein Intake to Optimise Performance 
Protein is a fundamental substrate for human function. Proteins are composed of amino acids (the building blocks), and there are 20 amino acids in total, nine of which your body doesn’t create endogenously. These nine amino acids are an indispensable component of any diet (Chandler and Brown, 2008). 

Due to the effects of exercise, athletes have an increased dietary demand for protein compared to a sedentary person (lemon, 2000). An inadequate intake of other substrates such as carbohydrates and fats, leads to an even greater dietary need for protein, due to the process of deamination; the breakdown of amino acids into fundamental molecules which can then be used for energy. An inadequate diet may therefore lead to a breakdown of hard earned functional and structural protein in order to fuel the body.

Flakoll et al (2004) studied the effect of intense physical exercise on US Marine soldiers. Catabolism (the metabolic breakdown of protein) is a bi-product of intense physical exercise which leads to a reduction in Lean body mass, consequently jeopardizing health and reducing function. Protein supplementation immediately post-exercise was found to be beneficial to health, muscle soreness and hydration during intense exercise training.

Once protein is consumed, this increases the availability of amino acids in blood and muscles, also known as hyperaminoacidemia.  Exercise causes an increase in blood flow and a greater rate of protein synthesis; this combined with hyperaminoacidemia leads to an increase in delivery of amino acids to the active tissues, therefore causing a greater potential for increased muscle protein synthesis after exercise (Tipton, 2008; Levenhagen et al, 2001). Levenhagen et al (2001) states that amino acid availability is the limiting factor for protein synthesis, not energy availability. Therefore, even if an athlete is consuming a balanced calorific intake, protein synthesis will always be inhibited unless an adequate protein intake is managed. 
  
Increased protein intake is equally as important for athletes training for cardiovascular endurance as opposed to resistance training. The difference is where the protein synthesis is focussed, for example, resistance training would require more structural protein synthesis (muscle growth), whereas endurance training would require mitochondrial protein synthesis (the cellular power stations within which enzyme reactions take place to create usable energy). It has been suggested that endurance athletes actually require a greater daily protein intake over strength training athletes due to the duration of the training sessions (Tipton, 2008; Tarnopolisky, 2008). 






 

 Figure 1 Effect of a strength training session on muscle protein synthesis (Lemon, 2000)

Figure 1. Shows a comparison of muscle protein synthesis before and after a strength training session, illustrating the importance of protein intake post exercise due to a significant increase in protein activity.

Esmarck (2001) studied the effect of the timing of protein supplementation, and whether it was beneficial to strength and hypertrophy. The subjects who consumed protein immediately after training gained dynamic and isokinetic strength by 10 and 15% respectively, compared to the subjects who consumed protein two hours after training. This study highlights the importance of protein intake immediately after training and is congruent with the findings of Flakoll et al (2004).

Most countries have a recommended daily intake for protein of 0.8-1.0g.kg-1.day-1 for sedentary persons. Moderately trained athletes (training five times a week but not elite) are recommended to intake 1.0-1.2g.kg-1.day-1. Top elite athletes such as Nordic skiers, orienteers and Tour de France cyclists, are recommended to intake 1.5-1.7g.kg-1.day-1 and this is likely to be a maximal value due to the nature of the exercise; therefore there should not be a requirement for a protein intake of over 1.7g.kg-1.day-1 in sport. Dietary intake for resistance training is contrary to popular belief, for bodybuilders who do high volumes of resistance training and have had years of experience, the recommended intake is 1.1g.kg-1.day-1. It is a misconception that bodybuilders will required masses of protein as they have adapted to be efficient at using the protein they intake. Also, a lean body mass has already been obtained, therefore the protein intake is only used to support a high protein turnover. The recommended daily protein requirement for a resistance training novice is 1.6-1.7g.kg-1.day-1, due to the early adaptation stage where the lean body mass gains are yet to be made. It should also be noted that at 2.4g.kg-1.day-1 there will be no positive change in protein synthesis, suggesting any amount above this value is in excess (Tarnopolisky, 2008).
 
To conclude, endurance or resistance training alone do not stimulate a muscular positive protein balance, where protein synthesis exceeds degradation. However, the intake of protein supplementation post exercise tips the scales and therefore enables positive net protein synthesis, which could lead to hypertrophy (Poole et al, 2010). As a strength and conditioning coach, I would recommend the intake of high quality protein from sources such as eggs, milk, nuts and meat. If the recommended amount of protein is not being achieved, then protein supplementation is recommended to boost your protein levels into a positive balance. I would suggest consuming protein when possible, particularly immediately after training and preferably before training, to maintain a constant high free amino acid count in your blood and muscles. Remember, there is an upper limit to effective protein intake, therefore consume as much as you can, but bare in mind, above 2.4g.kg-1.day-1 is in excess, and could be detrimental to your bank balance at no extra physiological benefit.   


Written By Ashley Stratton-Powell DNA Sports Performance S&C Intern 2010-11


References

Bompa T O, Di Pasquale M and Cornacchia L J, 2003, Serious Strength Training; 2nd Ed, (pp 95-96), Human Kinetics: Leeds, UK.

Chandler T J, Brown L E, 2008, Conditioning for Strength and Human Performance, (pp 126-128), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MA.

Esmarck B, Andersen J L, Olsen S, Richter E A, Mizuno M and Kjaer M, 2001, Timing of post-exercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans; J Physiol 2001 August 15: 535(1): 301–11 in Scand J Med Sci Sports 2002: 12: 60–61.   

Flakoll P J, Judy T, Flinn K, Carr C and Flinn S, 2004, Postexercise protein supplementation improves health and muscle soreness during basic military training in Marine Recruits, J Appl Physiol 96:951-956, 2004. First published Dec 2, 2003; doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00811.2003

Lemon P W R, 2000, Beyond the Zone: Protein needs of Active Individuals, Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 19, No. 5, 513S–521S [Online]. Accessed on 05/11/10.

Levenhagen D K, Carr  C, Carlson M G, Maron D J, Borel M J and Flakoll P J, 2001, Postexercise protein intake enhances whole-body and leg protein accretion in humans. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 828—837 [Online]

Poole C, Wilborn C, Taylor L and Kerksick C, 2010, The role of post-exercise nutrient administration on muscle protein synthesis and glycogen synthesis, Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2010) 9, 354-363 [Online], accessed on 01/11/10 from http://www.jssm.org

Tarnopolsky, M A, 2008, Building muscle: nutrition to maximize bulk and strength adaptations to resistance exercise training, European Journal of Sport Science, 8: 2, 67 — 76 [Online], accessed on 24/11/10 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461390801919128

Tipton, K D, 2008, Protein for adaptations to exercise training, European Journal of Sport Science 8: 2, 107 — 118 [Online] accessed 24/10/10 from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17461390801919102
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